John Lewis Gaddis explains the end of the Cold War as the product of a handful of decisive leaders whose choices steered the world toward a peaceful outcome. In contrast, Leo Tolstoy rejects the idea of “great men” altogether, arguing that history is not driven by singular figures but by the cumulative actions of ordinary individuals, arguing that a rank-and-file French soldier may have had more influence on the Napoleonic Wars than Napoleon himself.
I find myself somewhere in between. The Great Man Theory overstates the power of individuals, but Tolstoy’s view feels overly cynical and too simple. Instead, I believe in what might be called a Middle-Man Theory: history is shaped by millions of people making consequential contributions within narrow, often overlooked domains. These individuals rarely seek recognition, and their names seldom make it into textbooks, yet their work compounds, quietly reshaping industries, institutions, and, eventually, society itself.
They are not always visible, but they are foundational. The following are some of the individuals I consider among the most impactful since the 19th century: